At that time, most tree and shrub seed was allowed entry regardless of species being new to New Zealand or not. The exceptions were genera on a 'short list' of a few weedy species and some genera known to be able to carry disease within the seed (for example, seed of species in the genus Persea, 'avocado', can carry several important viral dseases not present in New Zealand; Castanea, 'chestnut', seed can carry the totally devastating 'Chestnut Blight' disease, also not present in New Zealand). No government records are kept of private or commercial seed introduced for trial, so noone knows how many introductions of which species of tree or shrub occurred up until about 1995, when open introduction of species was abandoned (except for introductions of live plants, which are recorded through MAF monitored quarantine after entry) in favor of acceptable genera, of which Cyphomandra was one.

Finally, on the 1st of August 1998, importation was limited to only those species on a list published by the MAF (the 'biosecurity index'). Initially, only a few of the species of Cyphomandra present in New Zealand appeared on the list. [note1] Although several more have been added since, several more species present in New Zealand have yet to be added.[note 2]

Many of the rare and obscure fruitng species introduced in the hope of finding another new fruit crop, or improving an existing one, were unsuited to New Zealands climate and did not establish; or persisted only until a year with a severe frost. Others died out due to random factors, mainly due to lack of interest. Some species had a very limited distribution, and time from release in New Zealand to final extinction in New Zealand happened in just a few years. Few of these species were 'captured' by the reference index as being present in New Zealand (albeit ephemerally).

New Zealand has passed an historically important landmark piece of legislation (the 'Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, which actually came into force in august 1998) which has had the practical effect of ending all introduction of species of plants not already in New Zealand which might yeild dietarily useful fruit or nuts. [note 3]
It effectively ends introduction of species that are wild relatives of fruit and nuts. Such species have traditionally been used in conventional  (as opposed to the high tech 'genetically modified') plant breeding to introduce genes for such things as disease resistance, improved keeping qualities, new flavors, new color forms, and the like. Crosses between species in a genus are often very difficult (especially in the family Solanaceae [Bohs 1994, p 24]), but the sophisticated conventional breeding techniques used to accomplish this cannot compare in complexity with the laboratory based, 'high tech' and very expensive 'genetic modification' techniques.

As time has gone by, scarce research funds have been re-allocated away from improving existing fruits and nuts by conventional breeding [note 4] or developing 'marginal' new fruit and nut crops to more technically complex and potentially economically rewarding areas of biotechnology in its broadest sense [note 5].

At the same time, much of the initial interest in new crops by amateurs and home gardeners has faded. Well known figures who introduced promoted and investigated some of these fruit and nut species - and particularly the rare and obscure wild relatives - in the 1980's have died, semi retired, lost interest, or had changes in immediate personal circumstances (family, financial, or illness) making them unable to continuing their interest and/or maintaining a collection.

In addition, the tradition of a 'back yard' with fruit and vegetables growing has largely disappeared - in fact the back yard itself has disappeared under a mad rush to cross lease and build on every square metre of bare garden.

There are two compelling reasons for writing these brief notes at this time.

Some existing part of New Zealands introduced food plant Biodiversity may soon become extinct
First, as discussed above, it is extremely unlikely that there will be any more undomesticated potential fruit or nut species introduced to this country. Therefore, existing introduced fruit and nut biodiversity is precious. Some species of potential worth as a future crop or for breeding are very rare in New Zealand. The prospect of them becoming extinct in New Zealand is high.

The list of species known present in New Zealand prior to august 1998 is undoubtedly authoritative, but it is certainly not exhaustive. To my very limited knowledge, it was compiled from a variety of public sources, including nursery catalogues. Referring to the genus Cyphomandra in particular, wild relatives have been introduced prior to 1998 for research and trial purposes [note 6], but some are too bitter, or too frost tender, to be of commercial interest. They have therefore been represented only in a few private, university, or commercial institutional collections. As a result, such species as Cyphomandra maternum, for example, are not listed.

While ERMA itself acknowledges "There is no fully comphrehensive list of the species that are lawfully present in New Zealand, importers would need to consult with relevant organisations that hold this type of information (eg Crown Research Institutes)." and  "There will be species which do not appear in any of the above lists [HSNO Organisms register, MAF Biosecurity Index], which may not be a 'new organism' " [ref 1].

The paradoxical result is that anyone wanting a species of Cyphomandra present in New Zealand, but not listed by ERMA (recall these are of no commercial interest, and not available from nurseries), and who is unaware the species is already in New Zealand and is also unaware who might have a plant or plants from which to request seed or a cutting, will effectively be unable to obtain it. After all, if they had evidence sufficient to support an assertion it was in New Zealand, they would not be seeking it overseas in the first place. They would simply satisfy their requirement locally. The few people with such remmnant biodiversity find themselves with a moral responsibility to 'curate' such plants, even if they are no longer interested in them.

As peoples circumstances change - moving house, divorce, disability, family commitments, new interests - it is very easy for non-commercial plants with a relatively small distribution to be lost, virtually plant by plant. Once a Cyphomandra species not listed in the biosecurity index  is lost from New Zealands introduced Cyphomandra Biodiversity, is is practically impossible it will be re-introduced.

There are two major reasons.
1. The current cost of risk assessment to re-introduce the species from overseas is too expensive for the average person. But there is no deep pocketed university, governmental, or quasi-governmental department that includes any minor crop as a research priority, let alone Cyphomandra. And the tamarillo growing industry is too small to fund much research at all, let alone a breeding programme [note 7].

2. Environmental degradation of the natural range of Cyphomandras may reach a point at which some species no longer exist in the wild. I have no particular evidence to back up this assertion, but for rare plants of limited distribtion, the fate of Passiflora lindeniana and New Zealands place as one of the very last refuges for its entire genome ought to be kept in mind [see below].

Nobody is responsible for curating rare Cyphomandra germplasm in New Zealand, whether as plants or seeds. Several species require cross pollination to produce seed and to maintain some semblance of genomic diversity. But in the case of at least one species, the small population has shrunk over the years to the point where only clonally reproduced plants from one individual now exist, so fruit will never again be available from which to extract seed  Nobody is responsible for tracking whether the small scattered populations or are shrinking, static, or slowly expanding. Nobody is responsible for curating species, let alone sufficient plants or seeds representative of the genetic diversity that was once introduced. With the fading of the 1980's 'new crop' hysteria, very few 'enthusiasts' remain. Perhaps 'everybody' assumes 'somebody' is conserving New Zealand's Cyphomandra biodiversity.

"The development of a National Strategy on Biodiversity for indigenous plants is being given priority. A national strategy on biodiversity of exotic plants (i.e. economic plants) is also needed...As funding resources are limited, it is likely that species of particular economic value will be given priority. Private individuals and societies who conserve "minor" species (e.g. enthusiasts in ornamentals, tree crops, herbs, etc.) achieve a great deal with minimal resources. Means of building on such efforts through better co-ordination and information flow need to be investigated."
- from 'National Report for New Zealand: Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources' prepared for the FAO in 1996 [ref]

'Enthusiasts' have not achieved secure germplasm curation for New Zealands Cyphomandra Biodiversity. Given the pressures of modern life, it is highly unsafe to assume that such ad hoc, contingent, and passing interests could ever curate germplasm much past, say, a decade.

Stable Government agencies with trained staff and facilities of land are the most appropriate instruments of conservation of strategic economic fruiting plant Biodiversity (and species in New Zealand that might be endangered in situ in their native country). A realist must concede that there is no securely funded governmental agency with a budget that would include curating Cyphomandra germplasm into the distant future [note 10].

A case could be made for a specialist arboretum to conserve 'minor' species of present or future importance to the health of the nation, and especially our children (for example, highly nutritious and protentially protective small fruits suitable for 'child accessible' streetside planting, such as species in the genus Psidium, guava). No such arboretum exist. The arboretum conserving some attractive and breathtaking woody plants in New Zealand, Eastwood Arboretum, has some security of funding through endowment, but even to curate and conserve such attractive plants, money is always a challenge. How much more of a challenge is it to find a substantial benefactor for rather 'unsexy' and unimposing obscure fruits that have few obviously immediate utilitarian features? Most unlikely, in my view. Or in absence of a benefactor, how likely is it that broad public interest would result in financial support for conserving what are apparently 'useless' oddities through the generations? Again, so very unlikely it can be dismissed as theoretically 'possible', but implausible.

It seems a little odd that a country uniquely suited to growing Cyphomandra betaceae outside its native range, and deriving direct economic benefit both by selling fruit overseas and locally by sharing the 'exotic oddity' with overseas visitors (an element of branding the New Zealand destination as unique and different) should not conserve seed (at least) of wild species and cultivated varieties with specific mutations, as is done by the Americans for tomato (http://tgrc.ucdavis.edu).

So the first reason for writing this review now is to simply record, with regret, my opinion that the Cyphomandra Biodiversity in New Zealand is endangered, 'no-one' is responsible, and some species present in New Zealand will probably go extinct and are unlikely to be re-introduced unless an agency finds space in its budget to curate and regularly grow out seed, if not plants.

The second reason is to do with age and generations.

I am getting older, and while I have long since abandoned my attempts at breeding Cyphomandras, the internet has made it possible for anyone faced with age and changing circumstances to record for future generations special knowledge that might otherwise be lost to society with passing generations.

General importance of Cyphomandras to the human diet
The fruit varies in vitamin C content, but listed as being either a 'very good' or 'excellent' source of vitamin C. [ref]. The phytochemicals that have been associated with effects to a degree protective against some degenerative diseases (such as some cancers and cardio vascular diseases) are present in C. betaceae fruit. These are anthocyanins, beta-carotene, lutein, beta-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin. There is the usual modest complement of other vitamins and minerals, plus fibre. I can find no data on wild species, but it might be fair to assume that those with colored flesh would have similar sorts of phytochemicals.
Tamarillos have varying amounts of bitterness under the skin. Some wild species have this, or other unpleasant compounds 'in spades'. Three glycosides are recorded as present in the tamarillo plants (malvidin-3-diglucoside, paeonidin-3-diglucoside, pelagonidin-3-diclucoside), and these are converted to the respective glucosyl-glucose compound in the fruit. Solarcarpoine is also present. No biological activity has been reported for any of these compounds. I don't know which, if any, of these ccompounds are responsible for the bitterness [Duke].

Tamarilloes are quick and easy to grow in soils and climates that suit them, and supply abundant and palatable fruit in the autumn and winter season, a time associated with an increased susceptibility to respiratory disease and stress to the immune system. Casanas are difficult to grow, have variably palatable fruit, and probably have relatively low protective phytochemical content. The same comments apply to C. sibundoyensis. C. maternum has fruit superficially similar to tamarillo, and might contain similar protective phyto chemicals. It is almost inedible due to a strongly unpleasant chemical compond in the fruit. This last comment also applies to C. hartweigii. Other species, such as Cyphomandra divaricata have never fruited in New Zealand. No analysis has been done, as far as I know, of the constituents of these wild species.

The dietary importance of tamarillo might be increased if desirable plant form characterstics and interesting fragrant flavors were introduced from C. maternum. Equally, if the chemical responsible for the unpalatabilty of C. maternum were bred out, the plant would have all the characterstics of a particularly valuable home garden and commercial fruit.

General importance of wild Cyphomandra species
Of the about 34 species of wild Cyphomandra, 10 are known to have been introduced to New Zealand. Of those 10, there are 7 species remaining in existance, although at least one will likely immanently become extinct here. Of these (effective) 6 species 3, namely C. casana, C. sibundoyensis and C. maternum, might be able to be bred to the point where they are domesticated, and possibly a locally commercially viable crop. Their faults are much greater than tamarillo, and breeding requires large numbers of seedlings to select from, which means large commitment of land and of knowledgeable human labor. It is unlikely any attention will be paid to domesticating them.

The potentially greatest importance is in hybridising the species between each other in order to bring improved characters into a given fruit, whether tamarillo, casana, C. maternum or C. sibundoyensis. As already mentioned, achieving an interspecies hybrid within the genus Cyphomandra is very difficult. But the starting point is having the raw material, the wild species, to work with. Even if our state of technical knowledge now is insufficient to achieve all the crosses of most potential use, future generations may succeed where we have not. Certainly, my rather limited interspecies breeding attempts failed, and so far as I know, so did most, but not all, of New Zealand plant science researchers (Pringle and Murray 1991). Researchers in USA have achieved crosses between 5 different species. The progeny were all intermediate between the two parents. Second generation hybrids and backcross hybrids to one or other parent were obtained for most crosses. These results were for research purposes related to working out the reproductive biology and taxonomic relations of the species, so seed of these crosses was not curated.

However, it must be pointed out that scientists around the world have tried and failed to cross the tropical papaya (Carica papaya) with one of the wild species (Carica pubescens). Such a cross is highly desirable, as it it might introduced the natural resistance to papaya ringspot virus that is present in C. pubescens into the highly susceptible tropical papaya. A few years ago, Australian researchers finally suceeded in creating the interspecies hybrid, and a programme to reselect for tropical charactersists can be done, breeding out all mountain papaya characteristics except for virus resistance.

There is a minor caveat. Where a species is not listed as 'present in New Zealand', no hybrid may be created using the parent not on the list [note 8]. As no one is attempting to breed Cyphomandra species in New Zealand (as far as I know), and interspecific hybridisation appears somewhat difficult, this is of little practical importance.

The species

As far as I know, most of the following species were introduced via the DSIR in the mid 80's, with the exception of Cyphomandra maternum, C. endopogon, and C. divaricata, which were introduced in 1997, and therefore, under current law, are most probably the last species of Cyphomandra to ever be introduced to New Zealand.

These notes review the history and importance of Cyphomandra species that I am aware of being present in New Zealand. To be fair, I have not been active in amateur plant collection or a member of the Tree Crops Association since the late 80's, and have had little or no contact or discussion with plants people about Cyphomandras since that time (and no contact with the quasi-private Hort+Research Ltd organisation that replaced the DSIR until the time of writing). Therefore, there may well be other species of Cyphomandra in New Zealand that I am not aware of, and that consequently aren't  reviewed here. I have neither the time nor the interest to 'dun' retired and active scientists, nurserypeople, amateurs, and interest groups, let alone mount a back-yard by back-yard survey in an attempt to make this review authorative!.  This brief review therefore cannot be regarded as exhaustive.

Note on naming conventions:
Botanical collections toward the end of the eighteenth century resulted in species of Solanaceous plants being assigned to the genus Solanum that would later be re-assigned to a new genus, Cyphomandra. Cyphomandra was first established as a genus in 1845 by Otto Sendtner (Bohs 1994). Recently, one taxonomy has the 35 or so Cyphomandra species transferred to the status of a 'section' (Section Pachyphylla) within a single overarching clade within the genus Solanum. According to this view, the genus Cyphomandra must now be 'lumped' in with the genus Solanum. Full circle.

"At least 10 major clades have been identified within the genus Solanum. One of these, the Cyphomandra clade, consists of members of Solanum sections Pachyphylla (former genus Cyphomandra; ca. 35 spp.), Cyphomandropsis (13 spp.), and Glaucophyllum (1 sp.). Molecular data indicate that the Cyphomandra clade forms a well-supported monophyletic group, but its sister group is still unclear."
-L. Bohs [ref]

'Tamarillo', Cyphomandra betaceae (Cav.) Sendtn.
Place of publication: Sendtner, Flora 28: 172. 1845
Synonyms: Solanum betacea Cav, published in Cavanilles, Anales Hist. Nat. 1: 44. 1799; Cyphomandra crassifolia Kuntze, Solanum crassifolium Ortega, nom. illeg.

Bolivian putative 'wild type' fruit
 

"One example of a focused study concerns the putative domesticate Solanum betaceum, the tree tomato...Until recently, it was considered to be known only from cultivation and its wild relatives and place of origin were unknown. Using a variety of approaches, including morphology, biosystematics, molecular techniques, and field work, we have been able to identify the closest relatives of S. betaceum and locate wild populations of this species in Bolivia and Argentina."
- from the University of Utah faculty notes website for taxonomist Lynn Bohs

DNA comparitive studies point to the Bolivian species C. acuminata (syn. Solanum roseum), C. uniloba, and C. maternum as being the closest wild relatives of Cyphomandra betacea (Bohs 2001). The 'Cyphomandra betaceum clade', comprising these four species, form a monophyletic group (Bohs 2007).

 Description
This fruit is too well known to require much by the way of description. The plant fruits on a more or less spreading canopy at or just above head height. Flowering starts in late spring, and continues into early autumn, but most fruit set about midsummer. Both wild and cultivated forms of C. betaceae are self compatible (Bohs, pers. comm June 2002). Fruit are ripe about 8 months from fruit set, i.e. winter, but there is quite a lot of seasonal and some varietal variation in time to maturity. Cultivated varieties are self pollinating, but both bees and bumblebees work the flowers, with bumblebees being the most persistant. There have been numerous strains selected over the years. There are red skinned, orange skinned, and goldy-yellow skinned strains, strains with red skin and orange flesh, red skin and red flesh, goldy-yellow skin and orange flesh. A few non-commercial strains are noted for exceptional sweetness. There is great variation in fruit size, and to a lesser degree, shape. Commercial plantations tend to settle on just a few larger fruited cultivars, so the various strains tend to come and go.

Genetic diversity in New Zealand
Apparently, most cultivated varieties of tamarillo have been derived from chance mutations from the seed introduced many years ago. The first record in New Zealand is a listing in the 1891-92 catalogue of an Auckland nursery. Hay received the seed from trees growing in the hill country of India, which included seed of a natural mutant purple tinged form that had appeared there. Some time after 1918 a red skinned mutant appeared (introduced under the cultivar name 'New Black'), and further large fruited red skinned strains also appeared and were reselected as well as this first mutant plant. Red cultivars soon predominated, with people preferring the more acid flavor over the blander yellow strains.and as a result, later generations of New Zealanders came to regard tamarilloes with the red skin color mutation as 'normal' [Fletcher 1970]

A relatively long history of grower and scientific attention to a numerically relatively large seed derived population has resulted in the identification of many useful and interesting variants. On the one hand, there is valuable diversity of form that is probably difficult to 'induce' by technical means, but on the other, the genetic 'base' may be quite narrow.

Paradoxically, seed from the original yellow/orange quasi-domesticated semi wild forms from the centre of diversity have been introduced, but more as a curiosity than as an attempt to conserve the broader genetic base that these plants represent. The fruits are more round than oval, thick skinned, and rather unappealling, although innocuous. As a result, they plants with this valuable broader genetic background aren't grown commercially, or offered for sale, as they are inferior to commercial cultivars available at nurseries.

Growers selections, and a broad collection of shallow mutational diversity was maintained by the Division of Horticulture and Processing of the then DSIR until relatively recently, but has now been abandoned. A 1996 report to the Food and Agriculture Organisation on the conservation of genetic resources claims to see 50 'accessions' of Cyphomandra. These are listed as being mainly maintained by Hort+Research orchards, and, lumped in with subtropical fruit in general, are "Mostly of local significance only; little unique". When evaluating the adequacy of conservation in New Zealand, the broad brush assessment of subtropical fruits (including tamarillo), is that "For some collections adequate but  many smaller collections of  fruit with lesser commercial potential definitely at risk " It would be fair to assume that tamarillo was one of the fruits for which there was 'adequate' conservation of existing genetic reources. Events have overturned this assessment. There is now no 'public good' collecting or curating of either tamarillo cultivars with mutational variation in skin color, flesh color, soluble solid levels or any other variable under genetic control; and, importantly, no curation of the widest genetic diversity in the wild species (or its closest relatives). All the wild species maintained by Hort+Research that had been  introduced and locally acquired through the 1980's and 1990's no longer exist in their collections, either as plants or conserved seed.

Tamarillo is grown in quite a few countries (outside its native range) with local conditions that allow tamarillo to grow. But areas climatically suited are very very limited indeed. Only New Zealand has a sufficiently large area with a suitable climate and soils to support a significant commercial crop. It seems curious that indigenously selected superior forms are allowed to go extinct with little comment.

Historically, there have been few improved cultivars acquired from the indigenous range of this species. 'Inca Gold' is the only cultivar that springs to mind. An almost round Bolivian strain was once available, and is said to be close to the wild type. One programme to select and improve what is mainly a subsistance crop in South America is known of at this time, nevertheless,  it is unlikely that the same breadth of mutational diversity in New Zealand is present in collections (if they formally exist) in South America.

Although North America is the centre for taxonomic study of the genus Cyphomandra, it is done in University greenhouses, and plants are kept for research purposes only, and tend to "come and go" according to the needs of a given botanical investigation. Only one seed accession from Peru is curated by the USDA, and even that is probably historical. The Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen in the Netherlands, which has undertaken to curate Solanaceous plants (other than potato), has 5 accessions of C. betaceae, mostly European botanists donations probably from commercial fruit, one accessions is an 'escape' to the wild from Kenya, and one accession from the wild from Cantan Quita, Province of Pichincha, Ecuador. It is uncertain whether this last accession is a cultivar that has escaped back to the wild, or if it genuinely represents a wild population, never in cultivation. However, seeds from "undoubtedly wild populations" of C. betaceae in Bolivia and Argentina have been sent to Nijmegen from field collections. Probably the only breeding work being done on Cyphomandra antywhere in the world is by the company CORPOICA (Corporacion Colombiana de Investigacion Agropecuaria), in Colombia (Bohs, pers comm. 17 May 2002).

It is axiomatic that species broad genetic diversity should be conserved in situ, that is, growing naturally in formally protected areas within the indigenous range. Whether the wild species in Bolivia and Argentina, the repository of tamarillos broadest genetic base - that is, the worlds most important tamarillo biodiversity - is being conserved in any way, either in situ or in seed banks with accessions that meaningfully represent the wild population, is unknown to me. However, some seed samples from populations located so far have, as a precaution, been placed in the seedbank of the Nijmegen Botanical Garden, as part of the Botanic Gardens Conservation International work to assist in conserving world genetic resources (Bohs, pers. comm.17 May 2002)

Future
Tamarillo has been called a 'Sleeping Giant'. So long as the fruit has a propensity to fungal rot in transit, has poor sugar levels, has poor storage qualities, has virus mottled fruit, has woody sclerids in the flesh, and has residual bitterness near the skin, it will forever remain a sleeping giant. Minor 'local' bitterness can probably be eliminated by vigorous re-current mass selection of the progeny of crossed of plants wth least bitterness. Most importantly, it may well be possible to eliminate all tamarillos problems  (except viral infection [n]) if it can be successfully hybridised with related wild species using standard modern plant breeding techniques.

C. betaceae was crossed with C. cajanumensis, C. corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora, C. diploconus, C. diversifolia subsp. diversifolia, both subspecies of C. hartwegii, C.obliqua, and C. uniloba pollen as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991). No viable seed was recovered. Bohs (Bohs 1991), in USA, produced viable seed and F1 hybrid plants from crosses with pollen of C. acuminata (syn. Solanum roseum) and with the recipricol cross using C. betaceae pollen on female C. acuminata, and C. betaceae pollen on C. uniloba also produced viable interspecies hybrid plants. The F1 generation were all self compatible, but with reduced seed set due to meiotic abnormalities (Bohs 1994, pages 24-25). No crossing studies have yet been reported involving C. maternum and C. betaceae. Such a study is effectively not allowed in New Zealand, as, at least at the time of writing, C. maternum is not yet listed as present in New Zealand.
 

'Casana', Cyphomandra cajanumensis Kunth
Place of publication: Humboldt et al., Nov. Gen. Sp. 2: 37. 1818
Synonoms: Solanum cajanumense Kunth, Cyphomandra casana Child


Casana grows in the wild in the Colombian, Ecuadorian, and northern Peruvian Andes at about 1,500 to 3,000 metres. It can be quite variable in a number of characteristics across its range (Bohs 1994). It seems to be adapted to misty, rainy, cold, but frost free conditions in the partial shade of forest clearings.

The plant is superficially similar to tamarillo, but the leaves are stiffer and covered in a fine puberulent hair. It is not as adaptable as tamarillo, and seems to need moisture, very good drainage, and shady conditions. It fruits heavily when conditions suit it, but is is usually short lived, and not regarded as easy to grow. It is probably self fertile. Bumblebees have been observed working the flowers.

This species was imported probably in the late 1970's and early 1980's, by several nurserymen and by Hort+Research Ltd.

This species was crossed with C. diploconus pollen as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), but did not result result in viable seed. Like most wild plants it is unfair to introduce it as a 'new fruit' without selection. But as the casana was so close to being an immediately acceptable fruit, this is more or less what happened. Unfortuneately, there was variation in the horticultural merit of the various introductions (and probably between individual plants). Soluble solids (Brix) readings, reflective of sweetness, varied from about 11 in the more acid fruit to 16 in the richest flavored fruit. Soluble solid readings did not necessarily co-incide with the most pleasing fruits. Flavors varied from mild sweet and pleasant to strong flavored with a 'tinny' aftertaste. Most fruit is mild and sweet, but some plants have fruit with 'peachy', 'passionfruity', or even 'orange' notes.

The casana has not had even simple reselection of seedlings of selected parents, let alone the standard 'beginning' plant breeding technique of simple controlled crossing of best plants and re-selection of progeny of the cross. Any selection of casana from the very small population of backyard plants must be regarded as part of the natural range of variability, that is, the casana in New Zealand is still an unimproved wild fruit.

Because the early importions were probably only from a narrow part of the natural range (Ecuador),  the genetic diversity of C. cajanumensis in New Zealand is likely to be very low indeed.

No institutional or private conservation of the already limited genetic diversity of casana germplasm extant in New Zealand is being done, either as seed or in a live plant collection. Seed from a particulary sweet plant was distributed by the author to one specialist nursery, and plants from this selection are sometimes available. The provenance and characteristics of plants occasionally available from other nurseries is not known.

Cyphomandra corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora

This species was imported probably in the 1980's, probably by Hort+Research Ltd. This species was crossed with C. diploconus pollen as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), resulting in viable seed. None of these hybrids were conserved. Bohs (1991), in USA, also formed crosses with C. diploconus, again, with C. corymbiflora as female parent.

No living plant from the Hort+Research Ltd accession or its distribution still survives, and no germplasm was conserved as seed, so this species is almost certainly now extinct in New Zealand. There is the thinnest of chances it may exist in a backyard somewhere.

This was a shrub or small tree, with  simple unlobed leaves and carrying attractive white blue star shaped flowers that fade lavender with age. The fruit are globose and small; 1-3 cm long and between 0.8 and 2 cm wide. Described by Bohs as "having a pleasant taste but were difficult to eat because of their pubescent skin and abundant seeds" (Bohs 1994)

A photograph of the fruit of another subspecies, C. corymbiflora subsp. mortoniana (Smith & Downs) is at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen's 'Check List of Images', viewable at http://www-bgard.sci.kun.nl/images/02393131.jpg . The Check List has a photograph of the flowers, viewable at http://www-bgard.sci.kun.nl/images/02393131.jpg

The species, as represented by subspecies mortoniana, is curated at Nijmegen from a single wild accession from Rio Grande, Brazil.

These brief details are recorded as an historical note.

Cyphomandra diploconos (Martius) Sendtner
Synonoms: Solanum diploconus (Mart.) Bohs, Comb. nov. Place of publication: Bohs, Taxon. Vol 44. Pages 583-587.
Place of publication: Flora 28:169.1845
 

Cyphomandra diploconus has an  ability to set fruit without fertilisation. Left to right-         130 seeds               79 seeds                40 seeds         0 seeds

The native range is coastal rainforest and Araucaria stands at about 50 to 1,000 metres above sea level in southeast Brazil (Parana, Sao Paulo. Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sol) (Bohs, 1994 p70).

A small, relatively short lived (about 10years) tree, closely related to C. sciadostylus (Bohs 1994, p72). It is 1 to 4 metres tall, the mature crown leaves are simple and unlobed (juvenile 'cauline' leaves may or may not be lobed) bearing purple or greenish white flowers that yield elloipsoid yellow to orange fruit 2-6 cms long and 2-3 cms in diameter. Interestingly, the fruit wall is free of stone cells. The flowers are self incompatible, although if visited by bumblebees they may produce good numbers of seedless fruit. Parthenocarpic (seedless) fruit are a lot smaller than fertlised seedy fruit. Where there is a pollinator, the trees produce heavily. The fruit seem unaffected by rots, unlike tamarillo. The tree relatively widely adapted compared to most Cyphomandras in New Zealand, including tamarillo, tolerating sun or shade, being relatively resistant to root rot, and tolerating more frost than tamarillo.

This species was imported from Bazil, probably in the early 1980's, by Hort+Research Ltd as Cyphomandra fragrans. It was at one time fairly well distributed, with both plants and seeds being available.

A small amount of seedling selection for fruit size was done both by S. Dawes, subtropical pomologist at the then DSIR, and by the late Louie Trap. These larger forms probably no longer exist. The fruit make acceptable jam (S. Dawes, pers comm.) but are laden with a strongly disagreeable phytochemical that makes fresh eating impossible. The chemical is similar in taste to that in C. maternum. Plants were once promoted as 'Guava tamarillo' on the basis of their Cattley guava sized fruit. Unlike the unimproved Cattley guava, which while an unimproved wild fruit, is still very palatable, C. diploconos can't be eaten fresh. So the name has not stuck; and the plant is now rare.

Using this species as the female parent, I was unable to obtain crosses with C. betaceae or with C. cajanumensis. Fruit would often set, but either there were no seeds, or the few seeds present had no endosperm, that it, they were little more than a seed coat. Eventually several seeds were set, but they were either unusually large or malformed. They did not germinate. There is some chance that plants could be obtained from such seed by embryo rescue. Such technique has apparently not been used with Cyphomandra inter-species crosses, at least, as at 1994. (Bohs 1994)

Any existing C. diploconos (larger fruited or not) from the very small population of backyard plants must be regarded as part of the natural range of variability, that is, in New Zealand is still an unimproved wild fruit.

A single accession from Parana, Brazil, is curated at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen.

Cyphomandra divaricata (Martius) Sendt.
Synonyms: Solanum melissarum Bohs nom. nov.. Place of publication for this synonom: Taxon. 44: 583-587. 1995.
Place of publication: Sendtner, Flora 28: 174. 1845

Introduced in 1997 by the author from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA (Bohs accession 94-28. Species det. Bohs from greenhouse retrievals); the original provenance is from the coastal rainforest region of Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil, where it is widespread (often in association with Araucaria groves (Bohs 1994)).

In New Zealand conditions this is a small, upright, weak, shrubby tree with rather gracile stem and branches. The rather hairy leaves are soft, and in group of four. The leaf bases are unlobed. Flowers have never been observed. Bohs (1994) reports the flowers to be white, green or purplish, small and somewhat like a campanula flower in shape. She reports the fruit as 2.5 to 4.5 cms long, 1-3 cms wide, and with a blunt end. The color when ripe isn't known.

This species is only represented in the remmnants of my collection, as far as I know. It is a weak plant and may be particularly short lived under New Zealand conditions. As it has so far shown no sign of flowering, it cannot be curated by seed. An additional complication is that the euglossine bees that are responsible for pollination in this species in the wild are not in New Zealand (Bohs 1995). This element of the New Zealand genetic resources of Cyphomandra Biodiversity is very likely to go extinct unless professionally conserved.
 

Cyphomandra diversifolia (Dunal) Bitter subsp. diversifolia
Synonoms: Solanum diversifolium Dunal. Place of publication for this synonom: Solan. Syn. Vol 8. 1816
Place of publication: Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. Vol 17: 354. 1921

The native range is cloud forest in Central America (Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela) at 0 to 400 metres above sea level, and 500 to 3,000 metres altitude in Colombia (Bohs 1994, p78).

This is a small tree or shrub with pinnate leaves (usually) and fleshy flowers that may be purple, white, or greenish. The fruit are 2cm to 8.5 cm long, 1 to 3 cm wide, acutely pointed, yellow or orange when they are ripe, often with darker longitudinal stripes (Bohs 1994). Flowers and immature fruit of another subspecies, C. diversifolia (Dunal) Bitter subsp. chlorantha (Rusby) Bohs, is available for viewing at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen's 'Check List of Images', located at - http://www-bgard.sci.kun.nl/images/02393131.jpg

This species was imported for study in the early1980's, by Hort+Research Ltd from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA under the name then assigned by Child, C. meridensis.[ref] The original place of collection was Venezuela. This species was crossed with C. betaceae, C. cajanumensis, C. corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora, C. diploconus, C. hartwegii subsp.hartwegii, C.obliqua, and C. uniloba as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), but no viable seed was set.

No plant from the Hort+Research Ltd accession survives at that institute, and no germplasm was conserved as seed. There is a Cyphomandra plant with a resemblance to this species seen sometimes in collections of exotica in New Zealand. It is invariably clonally propogated and has never fruited, so is probably propogules of the only individual of this species in New Zealand. It is not possible to have a narrower genetic diversity.

The species is saved only by its moderately attractive flowers, but is rare, so must be regarded as endangered in New Zealand.

The accession at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen is listed as "Dead or removed from Collection".

Cyphomandra endopogon Bitter subsp. guianensis
Synonoms: Solanum endopogon (Bitter) Bohs subsp. guianensis

Seed of Cyphomandra endopogon Bitter subsp. guianensis was introduced by the author in 1997 from Bohs, USA from an original French Guianese provenance, but no plants were established. I know of  no particular evidence this species is in New Zealand.

Cyphomandra hartwegii (Miers) Walp. subsp. hartwegii and subsp ramosa
Synonoms: Solanum circinatum Bohs, nom nov. 1995,  Cyphomandra naranjilla Pittier 1910, Pionandra hartwegii Miers 1845, Solanum hartwegii Benth. 1840
Place of publication: Walpers, Repert. Bot. Syst. 6: 579. 1847

The natural distribution is central America (southern Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama) and northwestern South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia).

The plant is tall and handsome, and in the form introduced to New Zealand, flowers and fruits prolifically where there are other plants for cross pollination. There is some confusion over the edibility of the fruit, with Bohs noting one author reporting them as them as toxic, but herself recording them as being eaten raw, and "sporadically cultivated...for its edible fruits" (Bohs 1994, p102). Certainly, the accession introduced to New Zealand is full of potent phytochemicals that render the fruit absolutely inedible. The plant itself has a wide range in South America, and there is quite some diversity in plant and fruit form. We can speculate that some populations of the species have palatable fruit, and some don't.

This species and its two subspecies was imported for study in the early1980's, by Hort+Research Ltd from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA . At least one accession (C. hartwegii subsp ramosa) provenance was from Huila, Colombia. This accession is the type species for the subspecies racemoca (Bohs 1988).  Both subspecies  were crossed with C. betaceae, C. cajanumensis, C. corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora, C. diploconus, Cyphomandra diversifolia subsp. diversifolia, C. obliqua, and C. uniloba as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), but no viable seed was set. C. hartwegii subsp ramosa (female parent) was successfully crossed with C. diploconus in taxonomic studies in America (Bohs 1989). No seed or progeny were curated.

No living plant from the Hort+Research Ltd accession or its distribution still survives, and no germplasm was conserved as seed, but there are a few backyard plants known to be still alive. Some are now represented by only a single specimen. As C. hartwegii is self infertile, these single plants no longer produce fruit. Some plants have passed what might be the reasonable limit of their life. It must be regarded as endangered in New Zealand.

It is listed as being curated at the Solanaceous plant Conservation collection at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen.

Cyphomandra maternum Bohs
Place of publication: (new species of Cyphomandra described after the date of transfer of all species of the Cyphomandra clade to genus Solanum)
Synonoms: Solanum maternum Bohs Novon Vol 7:341-345. 1997, published 1998.


C. maternum grows sparsely distributed in the wild in south central Bolivia. Its range does not appear to overlap that of the wild population of C. betaceae (Bohs, pers. comm. June 2002).

This is a slightly lax bushy small tree, not dissimilar to the tamarillo in leaf form. Unlike the tamarillo, it is inclined to sprawl rather than form a strong vertical trunk. It is about as cold hardy as tamarillo (Bohs, pers. comm June 2002). The general impression is that it may not be as long-lived as tamarillo. Flowering time seems somewhat variable, but broadly follows tamarillo, as does fruit maturity. Some individual plants may flower and fruit several moths later. Bohs has investigated the breeding system of these plants and they are self incompatible. The plants set fruit very heavily.

The very attractive smooth but not shiny fruit are about tamarillo size and shape, but with a pronounced point. The range of natural variation in this sample traverses plants with fruit about 60mm long and 40mm wide to fruit about 80mm long and 55mm wide. They are an even orange color when ripe, with an overlay of darker orange vertical stripes. The fruit wall contain stone cells. In some seedlings the stone cells are so large that they make the fruit difficult to cut in half. There is also a considerable natural variation in softness of the pulp.  Fruit laying on the ground eventually succumb to apparently identical surface rots as tamarillo fruit (i.e. no particular resistance to storage rots). The outer fruit wall has very large The fruit are almost inedible. While good sugar levels can be detected by taste, and sometimes an interesting grapey flavor, the fruit are packed with large amounts of an acrid phytochemical that makes consumption by humans difficult (fruit fed to a pig were eaten with enthusiasm, on the other hand, with no ill effect of any kind). Cooking does not eliminate the phytochemical. If this unknown phytochemical and the large stone cells in the fruit wall could be bred out, I believe it would have potential for introduction to cultivation as a fruit in its own right. It would require the application of simple plant breeding knowledge to make an economic proposition of this fruit. As it stands, the fruit is an unselected wild fruit with two serious defects, but defects that are likely to yeild to simple plant breeding knowledge of selection, crossing, and reselection.

This species was introduced by the author in 1997 from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA (Bohs donor ID 97-17. Species det. Bohs); the original provenance of the seed is from specimens first collected in the Provence of Caballero, Santa Cruz, Bolivia at an altitude of 2000 metres by I. Vargas in 1992 (Bohs, per. comm.1997). Vargas original seed collection was from either one, or at best a few, individual plants (Bohs, per. comm.2002). Therefore the plants in New Zealand represent only a tiny fraction of the genetic diversity of this species.

C. maternum is especially important because, along with the other Bolivian species (C. acuminata, syn. Solanum roseum and C. unilobum), S. maternum is believed to be (on DNA evidence as well as morphological grounds) the closest wild relatives of the tamarillo (Bohs 2001, Bohs 2007). Of all the members of the Cyphomandra clade, it is the most similar to tamarillo, and could easily be mistaken for the more oval of the orange forms of tamarillo. It may be that new flavors (not the acrid one!) and improved keeping quality might be introduced to tamarillo from this species (at least, by  breeders overseas).

It is not yet listed as being curated at the Solanaceous plant Conservation collection at the Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen. Seed representing a very small part of its genetic diversity has now been sent from New Zealand ( June 2002).

Cyphomandra obliqua (Ruiz & Pavon) Sendtner
Synonoms: Solanum obliquum Ruiz & Pav. Place of publication : Fl. Peruv. 2: 35. 1799.
Place of publication: Sendtner, Flora 28: 172. 1845
Native to tropical rainforest at 100 to 1000 metres altitude in the river valleys of the eastern slopes of  the Andes, Colombia (Amazonas, Colombia), Peru (Huanuco, Loreto, Pasco, San Martin, and Ucayali) Brazil (Acre) and to the Amazon valley (Amazonas, Brazil) (Bohs 1994 page 109).

The follow notes are inferred from the description of Bohs 1994. A shrub or small tree with simple unlobed hairy leaves 5cm to 20cm long and 4 cm to 17 cm wide. The star shaped flowers resemble tamarillo, and have green flowers tinged with yellow brown or purple (sometimes violet or brownish-purple).

This species was imported probably in the 1980's, probably by Hort+Research Ltd. It was crossed with C. betaceae, C. cajanumensis, C. corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora, C. diploconus, Cyphomandra diversifolia subsp. diversifolia, C. hartwegii subsp. hartwegii,  and C. uniloba as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), but no viable seed was set.

No living plant from the Hort+Research Ltd collection still survives, and no germplasm was conserved as seed, so this species is almost certainly now extinct in New Zealand.

The species is currently conserved in the seed bank at Nijmegen. Only one accession from the range of diversity is held, namely an accession from Near La Divisiora, Huanuco, Peru, at an altitude of about 600 metres.

Cyphomandra sciadostylis Sendtn.
Place of publication: Sendtner, Flora 28: 170. 1845
Synonomys: Solanum sciadostylis (Sendtn.) Bohs, comb nov. Revised name published in Taxon 44:586.1995.

Native range: Southeastern Brazil and adjacent areas of Paraguay and Argentina in field margins, thickets, and stands of Araucaria at about 200 to 1,600 metres above sea level (Bohs 1994, p131).

A small tree or shrub, 1 to 3 metres tall, with moderately hairy pinnate compound leaves. The stem and branches are rather thin. The plants seem short-lived and not well adapted. According to Bohs (1994, page 131) the flowers are campanulate, fleshy, and pink, purple, or white, and the fruit are small (2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 0.7 to 2 cm wide), more or less elliptic shaped, pointed, whitsish with longitudinal darker green stripes when mature.

Introduced in 1997 by the author from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA (Bohs accession 94-6, collected by M. Sazima, species det. Bohs from greenhouse retrievals); the original provenance is from the coastal rainforest region of Campinas, Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil.

No plants remains of the 1997 introduction, all are dead. Now extinct in New Zealand.

Cyphomandra sibundoyensis Bohs
Place of publication: Syst. Bot. 13: 273.1988.
Synonoms: Solanum sibundoyensis (Bohs) Bohs. Revised name published in Taxon 44:586. 1995.

Native range. This species has a a very limited distribution. It is only found in the cloud forests of Colombia's Sibundoy Valley and adjacent areas, at an altitude of 1400 to 2300 metres (Bohs 1994, p133).

Cyphomandra sibundoyensis was imported for study in the early1980's, by Hort+Research Ltd from taxonomist L. Bohs in USA under the name Cyphomandra sp. 'Bohs & Juajibioy 2222'. The seed is from the plant used as an exsiccatae herbarium specimen for this species (Bohs, 1988). The provenance was the Valley of Sibundoy in Colombia. All plants in New Zealand are from this one plant, and therefore the genetic base is as narrow as it is possible to be.

The tree grows to about 3.5 metres high, with a crown of stiff, somewhat tamarillo - like leaves atop a straight trunk. It carries large numbers of flowers in long racemes. Flowering commences (variable) about May. The fruit are about avocado size, with a thick fruit wall. They hang singly, or in bunches of three or four. The pulp has relatively few seeds (mature fruit may have as few as 36 seeds), and poorly pollinated fruit will set and hold on the tree, but are smaller (and seedless). The seeds ar relatively large for a Cyphomandra, and surrounded by a purplish coating. The pulp is acid, not quite as acid as a lemon. It has no trace of objectionable phytochemicals. The pulp is marked by its curious smooth, fine textured, nature. Fruit ripen over quite a long period, co-incident with tamarillo, but starting earlier, and with some late set fruit continuing later. The fruit store without rotting for a very long time. In room storage they will eventually shrivel, and finally rot, but seem unaffected by the sort of rapid -onset skin rots that plague tamarillo.

Fruit set has been problematic. Fruit on plants grown in full sun have flowered very heavily, for several years, but only a few fruit set, but fell. Initial attempts at hand pollination did not result in mature fruit. Ultimately, a few fruit matured in 1996. Seedlings subsequently planted in a shady position have fruited heavily - to the point of branches breaking. Bumblebees have been observed working the plants in the shade. Whether fruit did not set initially due to the aspect, or whether it was due to some climatic effect isn't known. The tree itself is subject to branch die back, with whole branches of maturing fruit being lost.. It cannot be considered easy to grow.

All Cyphomandra sibundoyensis from the very small population of backyard plants and collectors of 'exotica' must be regarded as part of the natural range of variability of this species, that is, in New Zealand is still an unimproved wild fruit.

A small amount of seed from Colombia has been deposited in the seed bank at Nijmegen.

Cyphomandra uniloba

C. uniloba is very similar to C. acuminata (syn. Solanum roseum), and is native to almost the same area of moist forest on the hills of the eastern slopes of the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes, the difference being that C. acuminata lives higher up, above 1,500 metres, where C. uniloba is found lower down the slopes, from 300 up to 1,700 metres (Bohs 1994, pages 49 and 148).

Bohs (1994) describes it as a tree 2 to 6 metres tall, with simple unlobed leaves [somewhat similar to tamarillo] which at maturity are 6cm to 20 cm long and 4 to 14 cm wide. The flowers are similar to tamarillo, star shaped, with green or yellow green petals. The fruit is like a small tamarillo in shape, and at maturity is yellow or orange, longitudinally striped with either dark green or purple.

This species was imported probably in the 1980's, probably by Hort+Research Ltd. This species was crossed with C. betaceae, C. cajanumensis, C. corymbiflora subsp. corymbiflora, C. diploconus, Cyphomandra diversifolia subsp. diversifolia, C. hartwegii subsp. hartwegii, and C. obliqua as part of a study of Cyphomandra taxonomic relationships undertaken at Auckland University (Pringle and Murray 1991), but no viable seed was set. C. uniloba (female parent) was successfully crossed with C. betaceae in taxonomic studies in America (Bohs 1989). No seed or progeny were curated.

No living plant from the Hort+Research Ltd collection still survives, and no germplasm was conserved as seed, so this species is almost certainly now extinct in New Zealand. There is the thinnest of chances it may exist in a backyard somewhere.

Notes
1. A search of the MAF on-line database titled 'Biosecurity Index' done on 16/05/02 using the keyword 'Cyphomandra' returned these species as known as present in New Zealand "Cyphomandra betacea, C. cajanumensis, C. casana [syn of C. cajanumensis], C. diploconos, C. fragrans [syn of C. diploconus], C. hartwegi, C. obliqua and C. sibundoyensis. Removing the synonoms, 6 species of Cyphomandra are counted as being in New Zealand. C. obliqua is probably extinct in New Zealand. Note that the database may be updated at any time. Therefore this result is correct only for the date accessed, and is presented for its historical interest.
The database is published at  http://www1.maf.govt.nz/cgi-bin/bioindex/bioindex.pl

2. The Environmental Risk Management Authority, ERMA, (a 'quasi autonomous non-govermental organisation', QUANGO) has the power to determine if a species is present in New Zealand or not. Where a species is found to be present, ERMA can gazette it and add it to the MAF biosecurity index. As ERMA has limited resources, it is under no obligation to itself initiate determinations of any particular species. A member of the public who has the species (lawfully imported prior to august 1998 - species introduced illegally - without a Biosecurity Clearance in verbal or written form given under the Biosecurity Act 1993 - have no protection or right to remain) can ask ERMA for a 'determination of presence in New Zealand' to see 'if' it is at large in New Zealand.
Of course, when a species is known by the owner to be present in New Zealand because it is growing in the garden, why would they ask anyone 'if' it is present in New Zealand! Therefore such specialist plants are unlikely to appear on a list.
Such plants might be of importance as germplasm, but of no immediate horticultural/decorative importance, are therefore not always of interest to the nursery trade, and so, again, are unlikely to come to the attention of those collating lists.

3. As far as can be told from a search of the Environmental Risk Management Authority internet database, a total of 1 new species has been introduced for release into New Zealand since the legislation came into force in 1998. This was a particular variety of subtropical house plant introduced for commercial propogation and resale. While a process does exist for ERMA to consider the 'novel' introduction of a species not known (by ERMA) to be in New Zealand, it is prohibitively expensive for the average person, where there is no commercial gain to offset the cost. Anyone paying for such an assessment might feel resentment that the public in general can benefit from their reluctant 'generosity' - in other words, they are privately subsidising the entire public good element. On the other hand, there have been many introductions of genetically modified species and species apparently not in New Zealand ('new organisms'), but these have been into secure containment facilities, for scientific study only, and almost none of the 'new organisms' will ever be released into New Zealand. Those that might eventually be released are simple gene insertions into existing crop species, and will probably be protected by patent or process, perhaps withheld from general public sale, and therefore for practical purposes made unavailable to the public (e.g. patented, withheld, and branded yellow kiwifruit Actinidia chinensis cv. 'Hort16A').

4. These GMO techniques can, in theory, accomplish in a few years what might take conventional inter-species breeding a decade or more. When dealing with the simple transfer of a gene - say skin color - from a wild species to a cultivated species, both conventional inter-species crossing and GMO techniques end up with the identical piece of 'skin color coding' DNA transferred. But GMO techniques get there much faster.

5. Major fruit crops, specifically apple and kiwifruit, continue to receive some funding. Increasingly, the accent is on industry, with some government assistance, developing patented new varieties which are also protected by variety specific brands.

6. As have a few other fruiting species in other genera. Examples in the genus Carica include, C. monoica and C. goudotiana; in the genus Passiflora examples include, P. lindeniana, in the genus Asimina, examples include A. parviflora. Some of the more frost tender species may only exist as an interspecies hybrid (C. monoica), some are both extraordinarily rare, have not fruited, and have resisted all attempts at vegetative propogation and are therefore likely to die out (P. lindeniana - which may now be extinct in it's natural range).

7. The only programme I am aware of is a biotechnology programme using genetic modification techniques to introduce virus resistance into Cyphomandra betacae by inserting a piece of the tamarillo mosaic virus (TaMV) into the tamarillo genome to act as a kind of 'vaccine'. Paradoxically, a breeding programme to either use wild species to improve the commercial viability of C. betaceae, or a breeding programme to create an acceptable fruit from a wild species might result in create a novel and vibrant export industry; an industry rich enough to support Cyphomandra breeding and conservation....

All Cyphomandra species that were tested in the mid 1980's for ability to resist TaMV showed symptoms.

8. "With one exception (see below) interspecific hybrids will be classified as new organisms. The one exception to the above is interspecific hybrids for which neither of the parents are new organisms [i.e. both parents are listed in the Biosecurity index]. The fact that both parents are already in New Zealand means that the additional risk is generally less than would otherwise be the case. Furthermore, as the development of these interspecific hybrids may occur within New Zealand outside the scope of the HSNO Act, there is  little practical point in regulating their importation". My emphases and bracketed comment [ref 3]

9. The Botanical Garden of the University of Nijmegen in the Netherlands "maintains the most extensive ex situ plant collection of non-tuberous Solanaceae species in the world." They concentrate on the family because of its importance in food, plant derived medecine, biotechnology, genetic engineering, and studies on chromosome structure and DNA reproductive behaviour. The University is a member of the Botanic Gardens Conservation International, an 'International Public Good' organisation, and collaborates with other Public Institutions worldwide to exchange and preserve Solanaceae germplasm collections. Accessions are identified and, where possible, maintained from seed curated in a carefully controlled and managed seedbank. The seed curations are documented by collecting and curating herbarium material and photographs of the donor plant. The verification data, source data, place of origin, data on conservation and references to the literature are stored in a database using the protocol of the 'International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden plant records'. In accordance with the 'Convention on Biological Diversity' (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), article 15 (access to genetic resources) concerning the exchange of plant material,  seed supplied to the scientific and horticultural community requires the person making non-vexacious ( i.e. for study or breeding, not for curiosity) requests to sign a legally binding contract. The agreement binds the recipient to only use the seed for the common good in research, trials, breeding, education, and public Botanic Gardens. In other words, the public good of maintaining and curating these seeds cannot be ab-used to subsidise private or commercial profit. However, commercialisation of the genetic material, its products, or research, whether by the researcher or a third party, might be permitted subject to written permission of the Nijmegen Botanical Garden. One can only assume that no permission would be given that might attempt to privatise and alienate the undeveloped genetic material (from wild species and their various ecotypes, especially ecotypes with near commercial forms, but which are simply part of the range of wild genetic diversity), access to which is the common right of all people.

This proviso creates specific difficulties for New Zealand, as there are no Public Institutes here involved in studying or curating Cyphomandras. The Universities have no funding for curation of Cyphomandras, and are increasingly driven by commercial principles anyway. The private companies must make a profit, and would only curate wild Cyphomandras specifically for possible future plant breeding and patenting. Therefore private Institutions are limited to using what species may remain in New Zealand, as they can't honestly access International Public Good collections without agreeing not to commercialise wild germplasm.

It might be supposed that if contracts were signed, a breeding programme based on wild germplasm acquired from such Public Institutions as the Nijmegen Botanical Garden might yield a cultivated variety through applied conventional plant breeding techniques (not simple selection from wild germplasm) giving them the right to patent a selection for its specifically unique and stable features. If this were the case, then the curating private company would probably also have the obligation to allow access to the full sweep of the variation in the original undeveloped wild germplasm they received, subject to the same contract on the 'Convention on Biological Diversity' as they themselves signed, and subject to all requesting parties signing an identical agreement.

10. True at the time of writng. Since that date, a government 'state owned business' Hort+Research Ltd has indicated it might try to make provision to take over curation of the remmnants of the authors collection, at least, and thus safeguard the remaining endangered Cyphomandra biodiversity in New Zealand. This is a hopeful prospect, and for at least one species, may be as 'close a call' as you would want. The dedicated scientists willing to do their best to prevent loss of such Biodiversity within tight monetary constraints deserve the highest praise and support.

References
1. ERMA 'Frequently asked Questions' Internet document, accessed 15/05/02
http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/FAQ/q_34.htm

3. ERMA 'Interpretations and Explanations of Key Concepts'
Document  Number: ER-PR2-03-4 03/2002.  Protocol 3, Series 2
http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/Publications/pdfs/ER-PR2-03-4.pdf

Atkinson RG, and Gardner RC. 1993. 'Regeneration of transgenic tamarillo plants.
Plant Cell Reports Vol 12(6): 347-351.

Bohs, L. 2007. 'Phylogeny of the Cyphomandra clade of the genus Solanum (Solanaceae) based on ITS sequence data
Solanum systematics
Taxon 56 (4), November 2007. Pages1012–1026.

Bohs, L. 2001. 'A revision of Solanum section Cyphomandropsis (Solanaceae)'.
Systematic Botany Monographs Vol 61. Pages 1-83.

---- 2001. Abstract submitted to the Botany 2001 Conference "Plants and People" held at Albuquerque USA in August 2001
http://www.botany2001.org/section12/abstracts/102.shtml  accessed 15/05/02

-----  and Nelson A. 1997. 'Solanum maternum (Solanaceae), a new Bolivian relative of the tree tomato.'
Novon Vol 7:341-345, Published 1998.

----- 1995. 'Transfer of Cyphomandra (Solanaceae) and its species to Solanum.'
Taxon. Vol 44. Pages 583-587.

------  1994. 'Cyphomandra (Solanaceae).
Flora Neotropica Monograph 63 New York Botanical Garden.

---- 1991. 'Crossing studies in Cyphomandra (Solanaceae) and their systemic and evolutionary significance.'
Amer. J. Bot. Vol 78. pages 1683-1693

-----  1989.'Solanum allophyllum (Miers) Standl. and the generic delimitation of Cyphomandra and Solanum (Solanaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. Vol 76. Pages 1129-1140

----- 1988. Four new species of Cyphomandra (Solanaceae) from South America.
Systematic Botany Vol 13: 265-275.

---- 1988. 'The Columbian species of Cyphomandra.'
Revista Acad. Colomb. Ci. Exact. Vol 16. Pages 67-75.

------ 1983. Crossing studies in Cyphomandra (Solanaceae) and their systematic and evolutionary significance.
American Journal Of Botany Vol 78(12): 1683-1693.

Child, A. 1984. Studies on Solanum (and related genera): 3. A provisional conspectus of the genus Cyphomandra.
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